http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/ Posts for sci.bio.food-science Thu, 25 Jan 2007 10:54:18 PST http://www.nnseek.com/ http://www.nnseek.com/img/64.png 64 64 NNSeek http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/biotech_resource_center_46219780t.html http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/biotech_resource_center_46219780t.html
http://biotech.fyicenter.com/ -- This site is a resource center for a
biotech professional. It includes latest biotech job opportunities,
Links to Major Chemical Databases, Chemical Markup Language (CML)
Related Website Resources, Structure Data Format (SDF) Related Website
Resources and SMILES Related Website Resources

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]]> Thu, 25 Jan 2007 10:54:18 PST http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/us_ma_devens_chemist_in_biotech_46219524t.html http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/us_ma_devens_chemist_in_biotech_46219524t.html To apply for this position, please visit this Website.
http://biotech.fyicenter.com/jobs/99897393_Chemist_in_biotech.html
To see other BioTech job opportunities, please visit
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Date: 25-Jan-2007



Chemist in biotech

Description:

Responsible for performing process research and development,
optimization and scale-up of synthetic routes and production for the
preparation of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients in a cGMP environment.


Qualifications include B.S. or M.S. Degree in Chemistry with 0-5 years
experience. Pharmaceutical industry experience within a cGMP
environment is highly desirable but not required. Candidates must be
dedicated to providing efficient service to internal and external
clients, and have the ability to work with minimal supervision. Must be
willing to work 12-hour, rolling shifts, involving some night and
weekened work.



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BioTech FYI Center
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]]> Thu, 25 Jan 2007 10:52:44 PST http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/us_tn_oak_ridge_bioenergy_systems_engineer_46219268t.html http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/us_tn_oak_ridge_bioenergy_systems_engineer_46219268t.html To apply for this position, please visit this Website.
http://biotech.fyicenter.com/jobs/99897407_Bioenergy_Systems_Engineer.html
To see other BioTech job opportunities, please visit
http://biotech.fyicenter.com/
Date: 25-Jan-2007



Bioenergy Systems Engineer

Responsibilities & Qualifications: The key responsibilities will
include the analysis and completion of engineering studies of feedstock
collections systems, plus modeling of harvesting, handling, storage,
transport, densification, packaging, and precision farming/forestry
operations. The candidate selected will be involved with design and
implement in-field and in-laboratory research and demonstration.

Ph.D. in engineering sciences is required for this position. An
understanding of agricultural and forestry systems is desirable.
Demonstrated experience in the use of field data and modeling is
preferred, as is knowledge of and the ability to understand energy
systems and energy conversion technologies. The ability to work in a
multi-disciplinary team, as well as with private industry, is
essential. Competence in computer modeling and quantitative analysis is
essential as is an understanding of the environmental sensitivity of
energy crop production systems.

Qualified candidates are invited to submit a letter of interest,
current curriculum vitae, statement of research interests, and the
names of at least three references by attaching a file to the
application. ALL THREE COMPONENTS SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN A SINGLE FILE.



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]]> Thu, 25 Jan 2007 10:50:58 PST http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/sci_bio_food_science_welcome_read_this_first_faq_3_46219012t.html http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/sci_bio_food_science_welcome_read_this_first_faq_3_46219012t.html
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Last-modified: 2006/06/12

RE-POST: FAQ Section 3/3 - SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions

See the first section (1/3) of this FAQ for any preliminary and
introductory remarks. See this section also for a list of food science
related sites and abbreviations.

For a list of definitions of industry, marketing, and scientific terms in
food science, see section 2/3 of the FAQ.

***************************************************************************

V. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Here are brief answers, compiled by the Institute of Food
Science & Technology, to some of the most frequently asked questions
about food science and technology topics. Food scientists and
technologists will appreciate that, because they are brief, and
because they are intentionally written so as to be comprehensible to
enquiring non-scientists readers of the newsgroup, they will not
adequately fulfil the requirements of a scientist looking for a full
"textbook" account.

The Institute of Food Science & Technology (IFST) is the
independent non-profit professional qualifying body for food
scientist and technologists, a UK-based body with international
interests. Its home page on the World Wide Web is at
http://www.easynet.co.uk/ifst/

KEY DEFINITIONS

Food science --

is a coherent and systematic body of knowledge and understanding
of the nature and composition of food materials, and their behaviour
under the various conditions to which they may be subject.

Food technology --

is the application of food science to the practical treatment of
food materials so as to convert them into food products of the kind,
quality and stability, and so packaged and distributed, as to meet the
needs of consumers for safe, wholesome nutritious and attractive
foods.

*****

Thus, food science integrates the application to food of several
contributory sciences. It involves knowledge of the chemical
composition of food materials (for all food consists entirely of
chemical substances); their physical, biological and biochemical
behaviour; human nutritional requirements and the nutritional factors
in food materials; the nature and behaviour of enzymes; the
microbiology of foods; the interaction of food components with each
other, with atmospheric oxygen, with additives and contaminants, and
with packaging materials; pharmacology and toxicology of food
materials, additives and contaminants; the effects of various
manufacturing operations, processes and storage conditions; and the
use of statistics for designing experimental work and evaluating the
results.

Likewise, food technology draws on, and integrates the
application to food of, other technologies such as those of steel,
tinplate, glass, aluminium, plastics, engineering, instrumentation,
electronics, agriculture and biotechnology.

FAQ GROUPINGS

In the interests of "user-friendliness" the FAQ is written so
that, as far as possible each answer is self-contained. This of
necessity results in some repetition of material in the answers to
related question For convenience, the FAQs are in four Groups as
follows:

GROUP 1 FOOD AND NUTRITION
GROUP 2 FOOD SAFETY
GROUP 3 ADDITIVES AND PACKAGING
GROUP 4 SCIENCE AND FOOD

The following is a summary of the questions, by the grouping
described above. The group answers can be found under headings of the
format: "ANSWERS TO GROUP [number] QUESTIONS - [group name]",
excluding the quotes and square brackets, and all capital letters.
When the answer to a question is given, the question and question
number will be repeated in the line above it.

GROUP 1 -- FOOD AND NUTRITION
1.What is good/bad food?
2.What is a good diet?
3.Do I need to worry about getting enough protein?
4.Is sugar harmful?
5.Isn't honey healthier than sugar?
6.Why is sugar used in foods?
7.Is salt harmful?
8.Why is salt used in foods?
9.Are fats harmful?
10.What about different types of fat?
11.Should we cut out all fats?
12.What is a hydrogenated vegetable oil?
13.What are trans fatty acids?
14.What are low-density lipoproteins?
15.Is margarine better for us than butter?
16.Aren't natural foods better for us than processed foods?
17.Why are foods processed?
18.Is a vegetarian diet better for us?
19.Isn't it more expensive to eat a 'prudent' diet?
20.Do we need more vitamins and minerals?
21.Do organic foods taste better?
22.What foods are good for arthritis?
23.Is ginseng/royal jelly/pollen/lecithin/kelp good for me?
24.What are 'junk foods'?

GROUP 2 -- FOOD SAFETY
1.What is food poisoning?
2.Why has food poisoning increased so much?
3.Why all the fuss about food hygiene?
4.Aren't we losing natural immunity by producing foods with no
pathogens present?
5.How can food poisoning be prevented?
6.What about irradiation of food?
7.Isn't genetic modification a dangerous interference with nature?
8.Doesn't gene transfer from one species to another create the
risk of ethical problems or even cannibalism?
9.Shouldn't all genetically modified foods, or those containing
genetically modified ingredients, be labelled as such, to warn
consumers?
10.With regard to BSE, is British beef safe to eat?

GROUP 3 -- ADDITIVES AND PACKAGING
1.Why are food additives used?
2.But aren't additives dangerous?
3.Food colours are only cosmetic -- shouldn't they be banned?
4.Why are foods packaged?
5.What function does packaging perform?
6.Do we really need the protection that packaging is said to
provide?
7.Is packaging wasteful of materials and energy?
8.Can packaging and energy usage be reduced without compromising
the protection it gives to the food?
9.Why are there so many different types of packaging materials?
10.Why are some packages difficult to open?
11.What about recycling of packaging?
12.What about returnable, refillable systems?
13.Why does packaging contribute so much to household waste?
14.Do packaging materials affect the food in them?

GROUP 4 -- SCIENCE AND FOOD
1.What is food science? What is food technology?
2.Wouldn't our food be even better without scientists and
technologists
interfering with it?
3.Why do scientific experts often disagree?
4.Doesn't hindsight show that the experts always "got it wrong"?

ANSWERS TO GROUP 1 QUESTIONS - FOOD AND NUTRITION
***************************

1.What is good/bad food?

In keeping with their Code of Professional Conduct, food
technologists in industry take great care to ensure that food
products are safe and wholesome. But eating or drinking too much of
any food can be bad for you -- too much water can kill you. We
shouldn't think of good foods or bad foods, but of good or bad diets.

2.What is a good diet?

A good diet is a balanced one; lots of different foods and not
too much of any one food. That way you get all the nutrients that you
need. Many countries have guidelines for healthy diets, including in
some cases recommended daily amounts of specific nutrients. However,
it is emphasised that these are for healthy individuals, not for those
with disease symptoms, food allergies, or intolerances. These people
should consult a dietitian or physician.

3.Do I need to worry about getting enough protein?

You will automatically get enough protein to stay healthy if you
eat a varied diet and sufficient of the wide range of foods available
to stop you feeling hungry.

4.Is sugar harmful?

Not in itself. However, if you eat a lot of sugar in the form of
sweets (candy), you may not eat enough of all the other foods needed
to provide your body with the nourishment it needs. Sugar can cause
dental decay if you eat sweets or drink sugar-sweetened drinks between
meals. You need to clean your teeth afterwards in the conventional way
or by eating a piece of cheese. Otherwise the sugar sticks to your
teeth causing plaque and decay.

5.Isn't honey healthier than sugar?

Not really. Honey is largely a strong solution of sugars called
fructose and glucose, which affect teeth only very slightly less than
ordinary sugar (sucrose). There is nothing specially healthy about
honey. The traces of micronutrients it contains are too small to make
any significant contribution to our diet.

6.Why is sugar used in foods?

Sugar is used in some foods to make them sweet, in others in
small quantities to enhance the flavour but not enough to make them
sweet. In some foods, however, sugar is an essential part of the
structure and recipe; for example in cakes or biscuits (cookies).

7.Is salt harmful?

Salt is essential to a healthy diet. We need about 1 g of salt a
day. However, many of us consume about 10 g a day, ten times as much
as we really need. A single dose of ten times that amount could be
fatal! There is evidence that, for some people, too much salt can be a
contributory factor to high blood pressure. Just how much is 'too
much' varies from person to person. Prudent advice would be to reduce
consumption to around 5 g per day.

8.Why is salt used in foods?

There is enough salt naturally present in food to satisfy our
daily 1 g need. However, salt is sometimes added during processing or
cooking of food, and is also often sprinkled on a meal by consumers to
enhance and improve the taste and flavour. Bread, tomatoes, boiled
eggs do not taste good enough for many people unless salt is added. It
is also used to preserve some foods. Salt curing is one of the
earliest known forms of food preservation.

9.Are fats harmful?

As with everything else, but more importantly with fats, too
much is harmful. Many common diseases such as heart disease are
linked to high consumption of fats, more especially saturated fats --
the type mostly found in animal fat.

10.What about different types of fat?

Fats in foods, or, more correctly, their fatty acids, are of
three main types, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated.

Saturated fatty acids carry a full quota of hydrogen atoms in
their chemical structure. This is the type that increases the amount
of cholesterol in the blood and is considered a risk factor in heart
disease; animal fats are the main source.

When one pair of hydrogen atoms is missing, the fatty acids are
termed monounsaturated. They do not raise blood cholesterol and may
even be beneficial. The main sources are olive oil and rapeseed oil
(used in some margarines and low fat spreads).

When more than one pair of hydrogen atoms is missing, the fatty
acids are termed polyunsaturated. They predominate in most vegetable
oils. Most appear to have no effect on blood cholesterol levels but
are useful if they replace saturates in the diet. However, those found
in fatty fish and fish oils (termed omega-3 polyunsaturated) are
considered to help to lower cholesterol and therefore to be
beneficial.

11.Should we cut out all fats?

No, because some fatty acids are essential, and we need a
certain amount of fat in the diet to be able to absorb the
fat-soluble vitamins. Compared with an average Western diet, a
prudent diet would contain a reduced intake of total fat, and, within
that, a lower proportion of saturated fat and a higher proportion of
mono- and polyunsaturated fats.

12.What is a hydrogenated vegetable oil?

Vegetable oils, as the name implies, are liquid at room
temperature. To make them suitable for use in margarines and
shortenings, they are hydrogenated, i.e. treated with hydrogen, to
solidify them. The hydrogenation process makes them more saturated.

13.What are trans fatty acids?

Unsaturated fatty acids in foods can exist in two
differently-shaped forms, scientifically described as the cis and
trans forms. Some trans fatty acids are naturally found in milk and
butter. When oils are hydrogenated, the unsaturated fatty acids become
partially-saturated though retaining a degree of unsaturation. In the
course of this, these still partially-unsaturated fatty acids have, to
some extent, become converted to the trans form. Research has now been
convincing enough to cause the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) to issue a warning regarding trans fats.

According to the USDA website, trans fats tend to raise the level of
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) in the blood when taken in combination
with saturated fats and dietary cholesterol. The USDA recommends
cutting back on saturated fats, cholesterol, and trans fats to reduce
the risk of heart disease.

14.What are low-density liproproteins?

All lipoproteins are produced entirely inside the body as a result of
digestion, so attention will be given to aspects of lipoproteins
having to do with our diet. Fats are packaged in the intestine inside
of cell membrane material called chylomicrons. These consist of
triglycerides and cholesterol packed inside a wrapper of phospholipid
and protein. These chylomicrons travel to parts of the body so that
the fat inside them can be deposited to other cells. What is left is
sent to the liver for recycling.

In the liver, the triglycerides are used to make many different
molecules, including cholesterol, which can be produced from
excess faty acids. Phospholipids, triglycerides, and cholesterol are
sent out of the liver in the form of "very low-density lipoproteins",
or VLDL. This gives the cells of the body a second chance at absorbing
fats, plus whatever other compounds the cells need. Triglycerides get
absorbed faster than cholesterol, and as a result get denser, and are
called LDLs, or "Low-density lipoproteins".

LDLs are almost 50%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% cholesterol, making them a prime cause of
atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) if in excess in the
blood. Since cholesterol can be produced by any fatty acid, "cutting
back on cholesterol" means by extension, cutting back on ALL dietary
fat. Ironically, dietary cholesterol is less harmful, since
cholesterol must be broken down before it is absorbed into the
intestinal wall. On the other hand, if the food contains a lot
cholesterol, it will generally contain other fats as well, usually in
even greater amounts. Foods high in cholesterol are generally from
animal sources, and therefore are usually high in other fats.

Reducing risk of heart ailments means reducing the prescence of LDLs
in the blood. This may be done in several ways, involving dieting,
excercise, or preferably both.

15.Is margarine better for us than butter?

There is no simple answer. Butter contains more saturated fatty
acids than margarine, but less trans fatty acids than some
margarines.

16.Aren't natural foods better for us than processed foods?

Nearly everything we eat comes originally from a natural source,
but much of it is processed to preserve it so that it keeps better
(e.g. canned, frozen or chilled foods); or to make it easier to eat
(like wholemeal bread, a highly processed food made from wheat); or to
make it safer (like milk that is pasteurised).

There is no simple answer to the question. In some instances
processed food is better for us, for example because harmful
substances naturally present have been removed or destroyed during
processing, or because the food has been enriched with nutrients. In
many instances there is no difference. It could be argued that, taken
in isolation, an apple for dessert is better for you than a chunk of
Black Forest Gateau covered in cream; but even in the healthiest diet,
there is room for an occasional indulgence.

17.Why are foods processed?

To make them palatable, edible, convenient and with suitable
keeping properties, Processing also adds variety to the diet by
making foods from combinations of ingredients, as cooks have done down
the ages.

18.Is a vegetarian diet better for us?

Not necessarily. Current nutritional advice, to eat less fat,
more fibre, more fresh fruit and vegetables and more starchy foods,
may indeed be easier to achieve with a vegetarian diet. However,
animal foods provide a concentrated source of protein, vitamins and
minerals. These nutrients can be obtained from a vegetarian diet, but,
unless it is expertly-designed, there could be difficulties with
protein quality and with some micro-nutrients, especially with calcium
and vitamin B2 (riboflavin) if milk products are rejected.

[Note: Whereas vegans are very well informed about problems of
obtaining sufficient vitamin B12 in a vegan diet, and there are
numerous yeast-based spreads and supplements for their use, no
warning is given anywhere in vegetarian/vegan literature about
vitamin B2. In a typical western diet, some 40 per cent of the
vitamin B2 intake derives from milk products. Someone switching to a
vegan or strict vegetarian diet that excludes milk products will not
only lose a major source of calcium, but will (in most cases,
unknowingly) lose that 40%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% of vitamin B2. That is why we rectify that
information deficiency in this FAQ, so that the deficits can be made
up from other sources].

There is an increase in the number of people who are vegetarian;
either because they are concerned about animal welfare, especially of
farm animals, and do not wish to eat meat or animal products, or
because they believe that there are health benefits in following a
vegetarian diet. The Vegetarian Society provides a wealth of
vegetarian nutrition information to help ensure the nutritional
adequacy of such diets.

19.Isn't it more expensive to eat a 'prudent' diet?

Eating more fruit and vegetables and less fat does at first
sight cost more, and needs more careful selection of foods. On the
other hand, if these 'prudent diet' foods are replacing prepared
convenience foods and fatty-sugary desserts, there may actually be a
cost-saving.

20.Do we need more vitamins and minerals?

A balanced and varied diet -- not too much of anything -- will
normally supply enough from a nutrition point of view. There may be
problems for children, adolescents, the elderly, women during
pregnancy and lactation, and people on slimming diets. These people
would probably benefit from a vitamin and mineral supplement. There is
also increasing evidence that certain vitamins (i.e. vitamins C and E)
have additional beneficial properties as antioxidants.

21.Do organic foods taste better?

Some people who favour organic foods for other reasons claim
that they taste better; but there is so much flavour variation among
different varieties, different degrees of ripeness or freshness or
length of storage of the same fruit or vegetable, that it is very
difficult for individuals to make true comparisons.

Generally, when attempts have been made to carry out
scientifically-designed blind tasting tests on the same variety,
organic versus non-organic, taste panels have been unable to detect a
flavour difference.

22.What foods are good for arthritis?

No individual foods will positively help disorders of this kind,
although there is some evidence that a diet low in saturated fats and
high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (particularly the omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids) could benefit sufferers. Although there
are various anecdotal claims about benefit from avoiding certain
foods, there is little or no scientific evidence to support them.

23.Is ginseng/royal jelly/pollen/lecithin/kelp good for me?

No convincing scientific evidence has so far been forthcoming to
substantiate claims for any of these supplements.

24.What are 'junk foods'?

This term has no specific meaning. It is an invented label which
some people have applied to foods of which they disapprove. It has,
for example, been applied indiscriminately to all fast food and all
snack foods. It has also been applied to any food high in fat and/or
sugar (and so in calories) but low in other nutrients. However, there
is no evidence that such foodsare other than acceptable as part of a
balanced diet.

ANSWERS TO GROUP 2 QESTIONS - FOOD SAFETY
***********************************

1.What is food poisoning?

Food poisoning is illness caused by any harmful amount of a
natural or contaminating substance in a food, but especially illness
caused by some highly infective kinds of bacteria. If not prevented --
as it can be by care and good hygiene -- some kinds of bacteria can
grow to large numbers in food and produce toxins (poisons) some of
which are difficult to destroy by cooking. Other kinds can cause
illness by growing to large numbers in the digestive system. Symptoms
include abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting, and may last from a
few hours to a few days. In extreme cases food poisoning can prove
fatal, especially to babies, the elderly and others with weakened
immune systems.

2.Why has food poisoning increased so much?

Food scientists and technologists in industry take great care to
try to ensure that food products are safe and wholesome. It is
probable that increased food poisoning statistics are due to a
combination of the following factors:-

1) increased public awareness, so that large numbers of
previously unreported 'stomach upsets' are now increasingly reported
as cases of food poisoning;

2) changing lifestyles, including changed shopping habits --
shopping less frequently in larger amounts and consequently storing
food for longer periods;

3) the increased marketing of chilled prepared dishes, which
need shorter times between purchase and consumption and more
carefully controlled low temperature domestic storage than many
people have understood or provided;

4) the emergence of some hitherto unknown or new strains of
micro-organisms.

3.Why all the fuss about food hygiene?

It is a fact of life that food is threatened by dangerous
microbes at every stage from farm to the table. So food safety calls
for many measures and great care at every stage or the food chain.
Leave a single loophole anywhere, and all the other efforts may be in
vain. So there are two overriding needs in the manufacture of safe and
wholesome foods; the first, in every food operation, knowledge of what
the law requires and of how to set up a sound method of handling and
an effective quality and safety control system; and the second,
knowledge and practice of food hygiene by everyone who handles or
takes decisions about handling, food, whether in factories,
distribution, retail, catering (foodservice) or in the home.

In addition to training of adults in food businesses, therefore,
many consumers need to learn a lot more about food hygiene, and
tomorrow's adults now at school should be taught food hygiene so that
it becomes second nature to them.

4.Aren't we losing natural immunity by producing foods with no pathogens
present?

That fear is groundless. The opposite view, that all food should
be completely sterile, is totally unrealistic. Bacteria are around us
all the time .There is no way that food can be made sterile, except by
putting it in an hermetically-sealed container (e.g. a can) and
treating it with a defined heat process to sterilise it; and even
then, once the can is opened, the food is exposed to the atmosphere
and contamination by airborne microorganisms. But when food is
consumed, it is not the presence of microorganisms that is of concern.
Danger only comes if they are allowed to multiply to large numbers in
food or in the digestive system. This is preventable by taking great
care and ensuring good hygiene at all stages of raw material handling,
manufacture, distribution, retailing, catering (foodservice) and in
the home.

5.How can food poisoning be prevented?

There is no single answer. It needs a combination of measures
and safeguards all the along the food chain from farm to table. See
the answer to FAQ 3 "Why all the fuss about food hygiene?"

6.What about irradiation of food?

Irradiation is a comparatively new method, one method among many,
of safe food preservation. It is, however, the only method (apart from
ultra-high pressure) of pasteurising without use of heat, and can
therefore be valuable in a limited number of cases; for example, soft
fruits and prawns, where quality is retained better than in heat
pasteurisation. It is a controversial technique but, despite media
scare stories, tests show that it is a safe and reliable process.
Whether, and to what extent, it will be used for any particular food
in a country will depend on governmental approval, economics and
public acceptance

As irradiated foods come on the market, so long as there is a
continuing public demand for unirradiated versions they will
obviously continue to be marketed alongside the irradiated versions.
But where the quality and safety of the irradiated products prove
superior, and the economics are viable, concerns will in time
disappear. This is exactly what happened a few generations ago when
similar concerns were expressed about permitting pasteurisation of
milk; yet today people happily and safely drink pasteurised milk. No
doubt the same will occur with acceptance of irradiated foods in the
future.

7.Isn't genetic modification a dangerous interference with nature?

Genetic modification has been used for countless years and
applies to all the food we eat. Traditional breeding methods to
improve animals and plants are genetic modification by slow,
hit-and-miss means. Science now enables it to be done systematically
and more rapidly. What is different, and could not be done by
traditional breeding, is the purposeful copying of genes from one
species to another.

Professional food scientists are concerned to serve the public
interest by furthering the application of science and technology to
all aspects of the supply of safe, wholesome, nutritious and
attractive food, nationally and internationally. The newer kinds of
genetic modification can provide immense benefits in human well-being
world-wide, especially in medicine, agriculture and food. Yes, like
every bit of mankind's progress from being a cave-dweller, it is a
form of interference with nature. Of course any new technology has
potential hazards. If these frightened mankind off all new
technologies we would still be living in the Stone Age. The answer is
for scientific effort to be made to foresee hazards and eliminate
them, for example, to avoid the risk of loss of genetic diversity.
That is why, for example, the introduction of any new
genetically-modified food is controlled in the UK in accordance with
the stringent assessment and recommendations of the UK Advisory
Committee on Novel Foods and Processes.

8.Doesn't gene transfer from one species to another create the risk
of
ethical problems or even cannibalism?

The officially appointed UK Committee on the Ethics of Genetic
Modification and Food Use, chaired by the Rev. John Polkinghorne,
carried out a wide public consultation and issued a report in
September 1993 on all of the moral and ethical issues involved. This
was accepted by the UK Government and welcomed by IFST. The Committee
found that the concerns were misconceptions rather than of real
substance, arising from lack of knowledge, outside the scientific
community, of just what was involved.

The fact is that any gene extracted from one species for copying
into another, is not itself inserted but is copied in the laboratory
and diluted millions of times before a single gene is transferred. The
chance that the original gene would be found are much less than the
chance of recovering a particular drop of water from all the oceans of
the world. If this were widely understood fears of cannibalism or of
contravening religious food taboos would be seen to be unwarranted.
Unfortunately, this fact does not make good media copy, whereas
sensational "cannibalism" scare stories do.

The Polkinghorne Committee's conclusions were:

a. genetic modification of food and medicines is here to stay.
It is not something to be stopped, and it would not be ethically
right or necessary that it should be;

b. there is no reason for any ban on the use of copy genes of
human origin or from animals subject to dietary restrictions, but
scientists working in this field should be discouraged from using such
genes where alternatives would be equally effective;

c. products containing such copy genes should be labelled to
enabled consumers to make informed choices;

d. government and industry should look for ways of explaining
genetic modification to the general public.


9.Shouldn't all genetically modified foods, or those containing
genetically modified ingredients, be labelled as such, to warn
consumers?

There are two distinct kinds of genetic modification. The first
is as old as the hills, and applies to all the food we eat.
Traditional breeding methods of improvement are genetic modification
by slow, hit-and-miss means. Science now enables it to be done
systematically and more rapidly. That kind of modification objectively
needs no special label indication -- otherwise it would have to be
given on virtually all foods. Yet if the ready to eat product still
contains genes incorporated by modern methods, informed consumer
choice requires label information to that effect. In the UK there is a
voluntary agreement by manufacturers and retailers to give such
information, and a similar agreement is being developed across the
whole EU. These developments have been welcomed by IFST.

The second kind, which could not be done by traditional breeding,
is copying genes from one species to another. If some consumers wish,
for whatever reason, to avoid purchasing products of this second kind,
if the copy genes remain present in the food product, that information
should be given on the label.

This dual approach was adopted in the recommendations of the UK
Food Advisory Committee, accepted by the Government and welcomed by
IFST. It is now also the basis of EU law.

10.With regard to BSE, is British beef safe to eat?

BSE is an extremely serious disease of cattle, the eradication
of which is of primary importance to safeguard herds, and hence
future supply of dairy and bovine meat products for the human and pet
food chains, together with important bovine by-products. For there to
be any risk to humans consuming beef, two conditions would both have
to be fulfilled: that BSE could be transmitted from cows to humans;
and that parts of the animal capable of carrying the infective agent
could enter the human food chain.

As to the first, the emergence in the UK during 1994 to early
1996 of ten anomalous cases of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) of a
previously unrecognised pattern, reviewed by the UK CJD Surveillance
Unit (CJDSU), led the Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory Committee
(SEAC), in the absence of other explanation at the time, to the
conjecture that the UK cases were "most likely" to have been caused by
exposure to infected cattle brain or spinal cord before 1989 (at which
time they were banned from the food chain). Since then the number of
cases has slowly increased to over 20, and research has resulted in
some scientific evidence consistent with transmission, at least to
some humans.

As to the second, while the BSE infective agent can be detected
in the brain, spinal cord and retina of BSE-infected cows, extensive
tests have so far failed to detect it in muscle meat or milk of
infected cows. Measures have been taken, and strengthened, to exclude
from the food chain certain parts of the animal (specified bovine
materials, SBM), including all those parts shown to be capable of
carrying the infective agent. These measures require the most
stringent enforcement and heavy penalties for evasion. These
safeguards do not, of course, protect against possible consequences of
having consumed infective SBM in the past.

Having regard to the present scientific evidence, therefore, and
provided that the above measures are fully implemented, consumption of
muscle meat, milk and tallow from British cows, would appear to
involve virtually no risk of causing CJD, i.e. to be safe within the
normal meaning of the term. SEAC has stated that, if there is any risk
to humans, it is extremely small, and no greater for children,
hospital patients, pregnant women or people who are immuno-compromised
than for healthy adults.

As regards animal health, measures have been taken, and
strengthened, to reduce the incidence of BSE in cows and these have
led to a dramatic reduction in new cases and are expected to lead to
the virtual elimination of the disease.

On the basis of present scientific knowledge, no further
animal-related measures are needed.

While that sums up the present state of knowledge, scientists always
have to keep open minds. They have to act on existing knowledge while
recognising that further research will bring new information and
knowledge, which may in turn lead to revised conclusions.

ANSWERS TO GROUP 3 QUESTIONS - ADDITIVES AND PACKAGING
**********************

1.Why are food additives used?

Many foods depend on additives for safety, stability or
preservation. Preservatives inhibit growth of microbes that cause food
poisoning. Ham and bacon would be highly dangerous without the
preservative that also gives them their characteristic colour. Freedom
from separation, or a smooth creamy texture depends on emulsifiers.
Without other kinds of additives many foods would look less pleasant,
or taste less pleasant, or go off more quickly, or cost more.

2.But aren't additives dangerous?

All additives in the UK and Europe are controlled by law, and
only those are permitted that have undergone stringent tests for need
and for safety in use, and have been been found satisfactory by
independent committees of scientists and medical experts. A similar
situation applies in most other countries. Some people are allergic
to, or intolerant of, particular additives; many more are allergic to,
or intolerant of, substances naturally present in foods, such as
strawberries, fish, nuts, etc.

3.Food colours are only cosmetic -- shouldn't they be banned?

Part of the enjoyment and appeal of food is its appearance,
including its colour. Homemakers, cooks and chefs have always used
colours in cooking to enhance appearance or to compensate for colour
deterioration during cooking. The same applies to some manufactured
foods. For example without colour margarines appear grey and
unpalatable; with colour they are visually attractive and popular. The
colours used are only those that have been tested and found
satisfactory by the same stringent procedures as those for additives
in general. Colour judiciously used adds to the enjoyment of food.
Would you want to return to only black-and-white on TV or on your
computer screen?

4.Why are foods packaged?

Foods are packaged to protect them and keep them in good
condition while they are delivered to stores, stacked on shelves or
stored at home.

5.What function does packaging perform?

The primary packaging of the food contains it; preserves it and
protects it from contamination or damage; carries the identification
and description of the contents; provides visible evidence as to
whether the package has been tampered with; and reduces household
waste by providing only the edible part of foods.

The outer packaging (e.g. paperboard cartons) is an essential
means of transporting to retail stores large quantities of the packs
for stacking on shop shelves.

6.Do we really need the protection that packaging is said to provide?

Yes. Food safety absolutely requires it. Moreover, a World
Health Organisation study has indicated that in developed countries
with sophisticated storage, packaging and distribution systems wastage
of food is estimated at only 2-3%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%. In developing countries without
these systems wastage is estimated at between 30%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% and 50%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

7.Is packaging wasteful of materials and energy?

Of course the production of anything, including packaging
materials, uses raw materials and energy. However, both packaging
material manufacturers and food manufacturers operate in an intensely
competitive environment, causing continual search for ways to minimise
packaging costs without compromising the protection or presentation of
the product.

Packaging also reduces the amount of material entering the waste
stream. Most packaged fresh and processed foods have had the
non-edible material (e.g. husks, peels, vegetable tops, bones of
animal or fish, etc) removed during preparation. As a result, those
materials are used for animal feed or other purposes instead of going
into domestic waste. Likewise, energy is saved by not having to
transport that inedible material through the distribution and retail
chain to the consumer.

8.Can packaging and energy usage be reduced without compromising
the
protection it gives to the food?

Here are four examples

In 1970, the weight of a metal can for baked beans was 68.9 g.
In 1990 the same size can weighed 56.6 g.

In 1950, a glass milk bottle weighed 397 g. In 1990, the same
size bottle weighed 245g.

In 1983 a 1.5 litre PET plastic soft drinks bottle weighed 66 g.
In 1990, the weight has been reduced to 42 g.

In 1950 a tinplate beer can weighed 91 g. In 1990 an aluminium
beer can weighed only 17 g, and was fully recoverable for recycling.

9.Why are there so many different types of packaging materials?

Most food products can be packed in a variety of alternative
ways. Manufacturers choose the most appropriate type of packaging for
a product, depending on the nature and requirements of the product,
the degree and nature of protection needed, the method of
distribution, the shelf-life and the environmental impact.

10.Why are some packages difficult to open?

the design of a package is inevitably a compromise between, on
the one hand, the essential protection of the contents, in some cases
requiring extra robustness or an airtight seal, and on the other hand,
easy and convenient use, including ease of opening. A really
well-designed pack is one that strikes an effective balance between
these two requirements. While there are some packs that are more
difficult to open than others, when an occasional pack is encountered
that is virtually impossible to open, it is usually the result of a
temporary maladjustment of a packaging machine (for example, forming
much too tight threading of a metal cap on a bottle) rather than a
design fault. Manufacturers are increasingly having their attention
drawn to the special 'openability' problems encountered by customers
with physical disabilities, and efforts to improve matters in this
direction will benefit all users

11.What about recycling of packaging?

The '3 R's' of current environmental packaging law and practice
are Reduce, Re-use and Re-cycle. These are the main ways of
minimising municipal waste disposal. As far as re-cycling of food
packaging is concerned is concerned, the major materials have to be
considered and dealt with separately.

Glass, tinplate and aluminium, when recovered by re-cycling, can
give similar performance to that provided by the virgin materials.
Re-cycling all three reduces overall energy usage (particularly with
aluminium). Re-cycling schemes are now in operation for the recovery
of both tinplate and aluminium containers. Glass containers (eg. milk
bottles) if sound can be returned and re-used; but broken glass
('cullet') is returned to the glassworks for re-cycling. Paper and
paperboard can be recovered and re-cycled for newsprint, tissues, and
some grades of paperboard.

Various plastic materials present a variety of recovery and
re-cycling problems. About half of all consumer goods are packaged in
plastic of one kind or another, yet, because of the lightweight
character of plastic packaging, it represents only 15%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% by weight. Its
light weight is of course economical of materials and energy for
transport of goods packed in plastic. Most individual plastic packages
(without counting the weight of contents) weigh less than 10 g, and
some of these are contaminated with food residues such as yogurt,
fats, cream and similar products. The light weight makes it more
difficult to collect and transport for re-cycling. Lightweight films,
bags, pouches, etc made of plastics or plastics/paper laminates are
probably better incinerated to recover energy.

12.What about returnable, refillable systems?

There are several requirements for a re-fillable system to work.
Consumers must be made aware of which containers are returnable; the
operation is local, centred around each filling plant with a radius of
about 50-80 kilometers; the transport system for delivery and returns
is preferably controlled by the filling plant; the cost of returning
the empty container and of washing and handling it, must not exceed
the cost of a single-trip container; the containers must be suitable
for return by the consumer via conveniently sited bottle banks.

13.Why does packaging contribute so much to household waste?

It is only when the package is emptied and needs to be disposed
of that we notice it. People are seldom aware of the role of the
packaging in protecting the product in distribution and until it is
opened for use.

A UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution found that
total packaging (not just food packaging) contributes 1%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% of the total
of all solid wastes. Total household waste contributes only 4%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% of all
solid wastes.

A study of waste by the US Chamber of Commerce indicated that
the relationship between food waste and packaging waste was clear; as
packaging use (and subsequent disposal as waste) increases, food
wastage decreases.

14.Do packaging materials affect the food in them?

The packaging material has both to preserve the food and to
protect it from deterioration, outside contamination or damage during
distribution and storage; and the packaging material in direct contact
with a food must not itself harm, or be harmed by, the food. The
packaging material for a particular food must therefore be carefully
selected with these considerations in mind. Most countries have
developed strict controls, based on extensive testing, for the use of
"food contact" materials; and these help to ensure that a correct
choice is made.


ANSWERS TO GROUP 4 QUESTIONS - SCIENCE AND FOOD
*****************************

1.What is food science? What is food technology?

*Note. The answers given are the same as the KEY DEFINITIONS
given at the beginning of this section, but are repeated here for
convenience

Food science --

is a coherent and systematic body of knowledge and understanding
of the nature and composition of food materials, and their behaviour
under the various conditions to which they may be subject.

Food technology --

is the application of food science to the practical treatment of
food materials so as to convert them into food products of the kind,
quality and stability, and so packaged and distributed, as to meet the
needs of consumers for safe, wholesome nutritious and attractive
foods.

Thus, food science integrates the application to food of several
contributory sciences. It involves knowledge of the chemical
composition of food materials (for all food consists entirely of
chemical substances); their physical, biological and biochemical
behaviour; human nutritional requirements and the nutritional factors
in food materials; the nature and behaviour of enzymes; the
microbiology of foods; the interaction of food components with each
other, with atmospheric oxygen, with additives and contaminants, and
with packaging materials; pharmacology and toxicology of food
materials, additives and contaminants; the effects of various
manufacturing operations, processes and storage conditions; and the
use of statistics for designing experimental work and evaluating the
results.

Likewise, food technology draws on, and integrates the
application to food of, other technologies such as those of steel,
tinplate, glass, aluminium, plastics, engineering, instrumentation,
electronics, agriculture and biotechnology.

2.Wouldn't our food be even better without scientists and
technologists
interfering with it?

No. It is the scientists and technologists, working in
universities and research establishments, in industry, as consultants
to industry, and in enforcement and government agencies, who extend
the frontiers of knowledge about the properties and behaviour of food;
apply increasing knowledge to the development of the present (and
future) wide variety of safe and attractive foods; design and operate
quality assurance systems to ensure that quality and safety are
maintained during the manufacture, distribution and retailing of
foods; operate surveillance systems to ensure that legal, quality and
safety requirements are being met.

3.Why do scientific experts often disagree?

Personal opinions vary in every walk of life, but scientists
disagree far less than the media suggest. However, at the 'cutting
edge' of scientific research, there can be genuine disagreements on
the validity or interpretation of available information and on how new
research findings may affect previous interpretations. Scientists are
accustomed to debating these matters, and it is in the course of
thrashing out these differences and highlighting gaps of knowledge
where further research is needed, that scientific knowledge advances.
It requires objective judgement, without, on the one hand, undue
zealotry or, on the other hand, defence at all costs of entrenched
positions of past orthodoxy.

4.Doesn't hindsight show that the experts always "got it wrong"?

No. Hindsight shows that the experts nearly always "got it
right". It's simply that we only notice the rare instances where they
did get it wrong. And in those instances, we have to ask why.
Sometimes the scientists were in fact right, but human error occurred
in applying that knowledge. Sometimes it was that the knowledge
available at that time was insufficient. Scientists are not magicians.
Twenty years ago they knew only a fraction of what we know now; which
in turn is only a small fraction of what we will know in a few years
time. Research brings new knowledge all the time and at an
accelerating rate.

However, our profession is the repository of existing knowledge
in the field of food science and technology, and includes the
researchers expanding the boundaries of that knowledge and the
experts applying it for a safe, wholesome, nutritious and attractive
food supply for the public benefit.

********************** END OF FAQ ****************************************

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RE-POST: FAQ 2/3- SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions

See 1/3 See this part for a list of food science related sites and a
list of abbreviations.

See 3/3 for general questions and answers about food science.

**************************************************************************
***

IV.DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF FOOD RELATED TERMS

In the following list of definitions of food-related words and
phrases, some of the items relate to the requirements under UK and/or
European laws, regulations or Codes of Practice. In the near future
anther list will be given referring to the requirements under US laws
and regulations, and, in time, those of other countries.

Any questions or comments about these definitions and
interpretations should be directed to: easynet.co.uk

INTRODUCTION

In 1987, the Technical and Legislative Committee (TLC) of the
Institute of Food Science & Technology, conscious that many
descriptions of, or claims about, foods were made using ill-defined
terms which were potentially misleading, set out to remedy that
situation. Making use both of published material and the expertise of
the Committee, it prepared and issued objective "definitions" for
certain key words, a few of which were not considered potentially
confusing but merely useful to include.

The intention was not strict definitions in the dictionary
sense. Some were accounts or interpretations of the limitations
within which the use of a particular term was justified. Moreover, the
intention was not to produce a comprehensive dictionary of
food-related terms, but rather a guide to food scientists and
technologists, and others professionally concerned with descriptions
of foods, particularly in labelling and advertising. In 1989, the list
was expanded and published in Food Science & Technology Today 3 (2),
128-9.

In the period since that publication, some of those terms have
been "officially" defined in legislation, official guidelines or
Codes of Practice - and it is gratifying to note the extent to which
these follow the lines of the definitions in the 1989 document. In the
same period, members of IFST and of the Association of Public Analysts
have suggested additional terms that are in common usage but are
ill-defined or sometimes misused. Accordingly, the two professional
bodies have decided to produce jointly an updated list.

The list given here includes some terms that were in the 1989
list (in some cases modified or updated); and some terms that have
been defined in the interim in legislation or in codes or guides. Many
of the terms listed here have wider connotations in relation to which
they may be defined or interpreted; but here it is only the
food-related usage that is addressed.

We draw attention to the category Marketing Terms at the end of
this document, in which have been listed a number of terms often used
without real meaning in relation to manufactured food products.

As before, it is hoped that the use, by professionals, of these
definitions and interpretations will help to minimise confusion and
misleading use of the terms. With any such exercise, some readers will
have differing views on individual items, or on the desirability of
including other terms. IFST and APA will be glad to receive
constructive comments from members, for consideration when this
document is next revised and updated.

Finally, it is pointed out that definitions other than those
derived from EU or UK legislation, and all interpretations expressed
here, are opinion, albeit opinion based on the views of the experts
involved in their compilation. The information in this document may
not be taken as binding on Public Analysts or enforcement authorities,
and, in the event of dispute, only the courts can decide.

Malvern Barnett
J Ralph
Blanchfield

Adulteration

The addition or contamination of a food by a substance foreign
to the normal product, which debases it or disguises inferior
quality. See Unadulterated.

Botulinum Cook

The heat treatment given to a low acid canned food (having
a pH higher than 4.2) sufficient to inactivate 1012 spores of
Clostridium botulinum. This heat treatment is called the Fo value and
it is equivalent to a process of 3 mins at 121 degC, 10 mins at 115
degC or 32 mins at 110 degC.

Biopolymer

A compound consisting of repeating units of a single
biologically produced molecule, either straight chain or branched,
e.g. amylose, amylopectin and cellulose.

Biotechnology

The application of biological science to the production,
modification or processing of materials. It encompasses
long-established activities such as traditional plant and animal
breeding, brewing, bread-making and effluent treatment, and the more
modern techniques of genetic modification and the use of fermentation
technology for the production of some novel protein foods. Though meal
preparation is arguably a form of biotechnology, it is already covered
in other newsgroups, such as rec.cooking.* hierarchy.

Boiled

Having been cooked in boiling water (or, by extension, by
steaming, as in 'boil-in-the-bag').

Chilled food

Perishable food which, to extend the time during which it
remains wholesome, is kept within a specified range of temperature
usually between 2 and 8 degC.

Chilled food chain

The sequence of temperature controlled operations after initial
harvesting, and including chilled transport, cooling during and after
production, chilled storage, distribution and retailing, through to
domestic storage until preparation for final consumption.

Comercial Sterility

A sterile product is one free from viable microorganisms, i.e.
those capable of reproducing under optimum conditions for growth.
'Commercial sterility' is a term commonly used in the canning industry
meaning the condition achieved by the application of heat sufficient
to render the processed product free from viable microorganisms
(including those of known public health significance), capable of
growing in the food under normal non-refrigerated temperatures at
which the food is likely to be held during distribution and storage.

Controlled atmosphere packaging

A procedure whereby residual air in a food pack is replaced
by a gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, in order to minimise
deteriorative changes on storage. An example is the packaging of
peanuts in an atmosphere of nitrogen to inhibit rancidity.
Where food has been packed in this way in order to increase
shelf life, the Food Labelling Regulations 1996 require the
statement 'packaged in a protective atmosphere' to appear on the
label.

Convenience food

A manufactured product requiring little or no preparation (other
than heating, diluting or dissolving in water, where appropriate)
before consumption.

Cooked

Having been subjected to a heating process sufficient to render
the food suitable for consumption.

Critical control point

Any point in a specific food system where loss of control may
result in an unacceptable risk.

Crude fibre

The structural component of the plant cell wall being the
residue obtained after consecutive acid and alkali digestion of a food
or food material. Crude fibre is determined for nutritional
declarations on animal feeding stuffs and also for defining brown
bread in the Bread and Flour Regulations 1984.

Dairy

When used as a descriptive term for food, refers exclusively to
milk and milk products. In the EU its use is legally governed by
Council Regulation 1898/87 on the Protection of Designations used in
the marketing of Milk and Milk Products, as supplemented by Commission
Decision 888/566/EEC. Help in interpreting some of these provisions
was given by a MAFF Guidance Note (November 1989). The Council
Regulation was subsequently implemented by the UK in the Milk and Milk
Products (Protection of Designations) Regulations 1990.

Dairy-free (Non-dairy)

A description that may be applied to a food that is free from
milk products and also from milk derivatives such as lactose,
caseinate and whey powder.

Dehydrated (food)

Food or food products from which all but a small percentage of
the water has been removed under controlled conditions.

Designer food(s)

See Functional Foods and Marketing Terms.

Disinfection

The application of effective chemical or physical agents or
processes to a cleaned surface or to a water supply to reduce the
number of microorganisms to a level consistent with good hygiene
practice.

Dietary fibre

In scientific terms, dietary fibre is a mixture of components
derived from plant cell wall material and non-structural
polysaccharides, as well as non-starch polysaccharides added to
foods. It includes non-digestible polysaccharides such as cellulose,
hemicelluloses, gums, pectins, mucilages and lignin. From a nutrition
point of view, some authorities also include 'resistant starch' (i.e.
starch that is resistant to enzymic degradation, usually as a result
of processing).

Currently, there is no universally accepted method for
determination of dietary fibre. For some years the UK Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) has adopted the definition, for
the purposes of label declaration, that dietary fibre is non-starch
polysaccharides as determined by the Englyst method; but in Guidelines
issued in March 1994, MAFF indicated that analysts may use any other
methods which give similar results. The Englyst method excludes
resistant starch. Most EU countries and the USA use the AOAC Prosky
method. This method includes resistant starch and the value for
dietary fibre obtained is therefore invariably higher than that by the
Englyst method. It should be noted, however, that no recognised
analytical method fully corresponds to biological performance.

Emulsion

A term descriptive of a food or food material consisting of a
stable blend of two or more otherwise immiscible liquids, usually an
oil and an aqueous phase, achieved by appropriate physical means and
usually with the incorporation of emulsifying and stabilising agents.

Enriched

See "fortified foods"

Fast Food

This term is not descriptive of food per se, but categorises a
type of catering outlet, providing, within seconds of being ordered,
counter delivery of freshly-prepared food items capable of being eaten
without cutlery. This delivery is mainly dependent on scheduling based
on accurate anticipation of fluctuating demand, a production system
and staff capable of keeping pace with it, and sufficient counter
servers to minimise queuing. Because some foods (e.g. burgers) have
lent themselves more readily to this type of operation, the term has
come to be applied to them too.

Fermentation

The process of chemical change in animal or plant material,
catalysed by enzymes of biological origin. It may be intended, as in
brewing of beer or vinegar, or unintended and undesirable, as in food
spoilage.

Fermented (food)

Food material having been subjected to fermentation

Fibre

Sometimes used synonymously with "dietary fibre" including in
European and UK nutrition labelling legislation

Flavour/flavoured

The term 'flavour' may have reference to sensory quality of
a food as perceived by a combination of smell and taste.
Alternatively, 'flavour', for which the legally correct term is
'flavouring', is defined in the Flavouring in Food Regulations 1992 as
a material used to impart odour, taste or both to a food. Under the UK
Food Labelling Regulations 1996, if the declared flavour of a product
is derived wholly or mainly from the named food, the product name is
(for example) "Strawberry X". If it does not derive wholly or mainly
from the named food, the product name is "Strawberry Flavour X".
The UK Food Standards Committee's 2nd Report on Food Labelling
suggested that consumers do not appreciate the difference between
'flavour', which the FSC equated with artificial flavouring and
'flavoured' which they equated with the use of the real food to
provide flavouring.
The UK Food Advisory Committee (FAC), in its 1990 Report on
Labelling, decided that the difference between 'flavour' and
'flavoured' was significant and that since consumers were said to have
difficulty distinguishing between the two, 'flavour' should be banned
and replaced by 'taste'.
The supposed confusion between the two words is a misconception.
Contrary to paragraph 64 of the FAC Report, the then Food Labelling
Regulations 1984 as amended, and the current UK Food Labelling
Regulations 1996. make no provision for the use of the term
'flavoured'. As indicated above those Regulations provide for (e.g.)
'Strawberry X' or 'Strawberry Flavour X' but no intermediate
designation such as ' strawberry flavoured X'.
The only legal use of "flavoured" is in the Cocoa and Chocolate
Products Regulations 1976. In those Regulations, cocoa products and
non-filled chocolates may be described as 'Y flavoured chocolate', as
the case may be, if the flavour is derived wholly or mainly from Y.
The term 'flavour' serves a useful and well-established
purpose. The FAC suggestion to prohibit it and substitute 'taste'
(reiterated in September 1994) is scientifically inaccurate and, if it
were to be embodied in legislation, would create instead of removing
confusion.

Food

In the UK Food Safety Act 1990, 'food' is defined as including
(a) drink; (b) articles and substances of no nutritional value which
are used for human consumption; (c) chewing gum and other products of
a like nature and use; and (d) articles and substances used as
ingredients in the preparation of food or anything falling within this
subsection. It does not include (a) live animals or birds, or live
fish which are not used for human consumption while they are alive;
(b) fodder or feeding stuffs for animals, birds or fish; (c)
controlled drugs within the meaning of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971;
and (d) subject to certain exceptions, medicinal products in respect
of which product licences or marketing authorisations are in force.
This definition states what 'food' includes and excludes (similarly to
the latter part of the Codex definition) but it is deficient in
failing to define what food is, i.e. does not specify "intended for
human consumption".
The Codex Alimentarius defines 'food' as "any substance,
whether processed, semi processed or raw, which is intended for human
consumption and includes drink, chewing gum and any substance which
has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of food,
but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances only used as
drugs".
The EU Commission, in its November 2000 Proposal for a
Regulation laying down the general principles and requirements of food
law, establishing the European Food Authority, and laying down
procedures in matters of food, proposed the following definition:
'Food' (or 'foodstuff') means any substance or product, whether
processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or
expected to be ingested by humans. It includes drink, chewing gum and
any substance intentionally incorporated into the food during its
manufacture, preparation or treatment. It includes water, without
prejudice to the requirements of Directives 80/778/EEC and 98/83/EC.
It shall not include:

(a) feed;
(b) live animals unless they are prepared, packaged and/or
served for human consumption;
(c) plants prior to harvesting;
(d) medicinal products within the meaning of Council Directive
65/65/EEC 17;
(e) cosmetics within the meaning of Council Directive 76/768/EEC
18 ;
(f) tobacco and tobacco products within the meaning of Council
Directive 89/622/EEC 19 ;
(g) narcotic or psychotropic substances within the meaning of
the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961
and the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances,
1971.

Food hygiene

All environmental factors, practices, processes and precautions
involved in protecting food from contamination by any agency, and
preventing any organism present from multiplying to an extent that
would expose consumers to risk or result in premature spoilage or
decomposition of food.

Fortified (food)

Three separate circumstances may be defined: Restored, enriched,
and fortified foods, as described here:

Restore

the addition of nutrients to foods in order to restore the
level of those nutrients that were originally present, but have
been destroyed or lost in processing.

Enrich

The addition to a food of one or more nutrients which were
already present in that food in lower than desirable amounts.

Fortify

The addition to a food of significant quantities of a
nutrient that was not originally present in that food or was
present only in nutritionally insignificant amount.

Free from ....

For food to be described as 'free from X' (or by terms having a
similar import) the food, at the point of sale, must be either free
from
X when tested by a standard reference method of analysis or it must
contain no more than a specified maximum of X.

Free from added ....

If a food in its original state contains X, it may be described
as
'free from added X' (or by terms having a similar import) only if no X
has been introduced, directly or indirectly, via any ingredient or
during production, manufacture, processing, packaging, storage,
distribution or point of sale. MAFF Guidelines (1993) specify that 'no
added sugar' means that no sugars, or foods composed mainly of sugars,
should be added to a food or any of its ingredients; and that 'no
added salt' means that no salt or sodium compounds should be added to
the
food
or to any of its ingredients.

It should be noted, however, that in the instance of a food which
strictly complies with the foregoing but itself has a high sugar
content
(for example date paste) the description 'no added sugar', though
true, could be held to be misleading (Section 3(2) of the Trade
Descriptions Act 1968).

Fresh

The condition of a short shelf-life perishable unprocessed food
prior to perceptible evidence of physical, chemical or microbiological
change. Fresh is normally applied to unprocessed foods e.g. fresh
eggs, fresh meat, showing that they are in their original state. It is
also used in apparently contradictory terms, e.g. fresh pasteurised
cream to distinguish it from more highly processed sterilised cream.

Functional

Fulfilling a specific physical, chemical or biological function.

Functional food(s)

All foods are functional, and to term some (as distinct from
others) as 'functional' is illogical. The term is one of the
marketing-coined names (others are 'neutraceuticals' and 'designer
foods') to categorise foods which are considered or claimed to offer
specific health benefits while avoiding the requirement to be licensed
medicines (See Marketing terms, below).

Genetic modification

The process of making changes to the genes of an organism
(whether an animal or plant organism or a microorganism). Genetic
changes occur spontaneously in nature over a long period of time, but
they may be produced intentionally either by traditional methods of
selective breeding of animals and plants, or by modern methods of
removal or insertion of genes. The latter method involves four basic
steps;

1. the DNA of a cell of the donor organism is broken down and
the pieces separated;
2. the desired gene is selected;
3. that gene is copied many times; and
4. nth generation laboratory copies (not the donor's original
genes) are then inserted into the DNA of the receiver
organism.

'Within-species' genetic modification is essentially similar to
traditional breeding methods (except that it is much speedier and much
less haphazard). Through 'trans-species' modification, results are
obtainable that could not be obtained by traditional breeding methods.
In relation to food, the potential scientific benefits of genetic
modification are:

* Improved agricultural performance (yields) with reduced use
of pesticides
* Ability to grow crops in inhospitable environments (e.g. via
increased ability of plants to grow in conditions of drought,
salinity and extremes of temperature
* Delayed ripening, permitting improvements in quality and
processing advantages.
* Altered sensory attributes of food (e.g. flavour, texture,
etc.) * Improved nutritional attributes e.g. combatting
anti-nutritive
and allergenic factors, and increased Vitamin A content in
rice.
* Improved processing characteristics leading to reduced waste
and lower food costs to the consumer.

Some forms of trans-species modification may give rise to ethical and
religious issues.
See also FAQ in section V (including within-species and
trans-species) Part 2, Q 7, 8, and 9

Genetically modified-See FAQ same sections as above

Genuine

'Genuine' in connection with foods means an authentic type or
source. It serves to distinguish ingredients which might otherwise be
synthetic (e.g. 'vanilla ice cream, made with genuine vanilla') or it
may establish the origin or type of a food (e.g. genuine Manzanilla
olives, genuine Italian olive oil).

GMP

'Good manufacturing practice' (GMP) is that part of a food
control
operation aimed at ensuring that products are consistently
manufactured to a specified quality appropriate to their intended use.
It thus has two complementary and interacting components; the
manufacturing operation itself and the control system and procedures.
Reference
should
be made to the IFST publication 'Food and Drink - Good Manufacturing
Practice: A Guide to its Responsible Management'. (3rd Edition, 1991).

HACCP

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive
system of food control. It involves

1. Hazard analysis - examining and analysing every stage of
a food-related operation to identify and assess hazards
(q.v., below);
2. determining the 'critical control points' (q.v., above) at
which action is required to control the identified hazards;
3. establishing the critical limits that must be met at each
critical control point;
4. establishing monitoring procedures;
5. establishing corrective procedures when a deviation is
identified by monitoring;
6. establishing verification procedures to demostrate that it
is working correctly.
7. Establishing record-keeping and documentation.

A few authoritative sources of information are:

* "HACCP Systems and Guidelines" , CODEX Alimentarius, 1997. *
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and
Application Guidelines, (US) National Advisory Committee on
Microbiological Safety of Foods, 14 August 1997
http://www.fst.vt.edu/haccp97/
* Food Safety and Inspection Service, US Department of
Agriculture, Pathogen Reduction/HACCP & HACCP Implementation
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OA/haccp/imphaccp.htm
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency 's Food Safety Enhancement
Program Web page of links at
http://www.cfia-acia.agr.ca/english/ppc/haccp/haccp.html
* A Simple Guide to Understanding and Applying the Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point Concept. ILSI Europe, 1997.
http://www.ilsi.org/pubs/ilsihace.pdf

HAZOP

Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) is a systematic structured
approach to questioning the sequential stages of a proposed operation
in
order to optimise the efficiency and the management of risk. Thus, the
application of HAZOP to the design of a proposed food-related
operation,
should result in a system in which as many critical control points as
possible have been eliminated, making the subsequent application of
HACCP during subsequent operations much easier to carry out.

Hazard

Any intrinsic property of a system, operation, material or
situation that could, in certain circumstances, lead to an adverse
consequence. In food terms, this particularly refers to an adverse
consequence (health risk or loss by spoilage) to the consumer.

Health food

This is essentially a marketing term, the meaning of which has
never been clear. There is no legal basis and no evident objective
justification for the term, which implies a superiority over foods not
so described. So-called health foods fall into four main categories,
namely

1) products in respect of which there is adequate scientific
substantiation for the specific permissible nutrition and/or health
claims made, and which are labelled in accordance with relevant
legislation;

2) those in respect of which there is 'folklore' and some
scientific evidence for the claims, but falling short of
substantiation;

3) those making claims for which there is little or no scientific
evidence;

4) other products that are frequently sold in health food shops
e.g. 'wholefoods' (q.v.).

It should be noted that some products in categories 2 and 3 have
given rise to concerns about their safety, which, in certain cases,
have
led to prohibition.

Hermetically sealed container

Strictly, an 'hermetically sealed container' is one that is
sealed
so as to be air-tight. Commercially sterile food products may be
packed in non-metallic containers that are not completely air-tight.
In the latter context, an 'hermetically sealed container' has been
defined as one that is designed and intended to be secure against
entry of microorganisms.

High in .....

Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified minimum, or a legally-specified percentage increase
compared with a product not making a "high in" claim for the
parameters involved."

Higher in (increased) .....

Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified percentage increase compared with a product not
making
such a claim, for the parameter involved.

Home made

This term has no defined meaning but it implies that a food has
been prepared on a small scale, either on domestic premises or
premises not associated with large scale manufacture.

Improved

Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction
with
'new', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, including minor
cosmetic changes, cost-cutting changes, and formulation changes to
make the product more acceptable to purchasers. It is the latter case
that most properly justifies the use of the term.

Instant

This term is strictly justified only in the cases of dry powders
or
mixes which rehydrate instantly, i.e. in a matter of a few seconds
(e.g.
instant coffee, instant tea) and should be reserved for such speedy
action. By extension, however, the term has sometimes been misused by
applying it to dry mix products which rehydrate faster than some
others but still take a few minutes rather than a few seconds. For the
latter, a term such as 'rapid' would be more appropriate.

Irradiated

Having been subjected to ionising radiation.

Isotonic

A term applied to a liquid product, e.g. a drink, having osmotic
properties approximating to those of blood serum, i.e. 280 milli-
osmoles per kg. However, the EU Scientific Committee for Food's
February 2001 Report on Sports Drinks
http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out64_en.pdf includes

"It has become common to refer to carbohydrate-electrolyte
sports drinks as isotonic drinks, as though the tonicity was
their most important characteristic. The osmolality of ingested
fluids is important as this can influence both the rates of
gastric emptying and of intestinal water flux: both of these
processes together will determine the effectiveness of
rehydration fluids at delivering water for rehydration. An
increasing osmolality of the gastric contents will tend to delay
emptying, and increasing the carbohydrate or electrolyte content
of sports drinks will generally result in an increased
osmolality. The composition of the drinks and the nature of the
solutes is, however, of greater importance than the osmolality
itself??."

and concludes:

"Although most of the popular sports drinks are formulated to
have as close to that of body fluids [102] and are promoted as
isotonic drinks, there is good evidence that hypotonic solutions
are more effective when rapid rehydration is desired. Although it
is argued that a higher osmolality is inevitable when adequate
amounts of carbohydrate are to be included in sports drinks, the
optimum amount of carbohydrate necessary to improve exercise
performance has not been clearly established."

Junk Food

This term has no specific meaning. It is an invented label
which has, for example, been applied indiscriminately to all fast food
and all snack foods. It has also been applied to any food high in fat
and/or sugar (and so in calories) but low in other nutrients. However,
there is no evidence that such foods are other than acceptable as part
of a balanced diet

Light/Lite

These terms are used to signify a lower energy or lower fat
version
of a particular food, [and therefore should comply with conditions
applying to a reduced .... claim. (see Reduced .......)]. That would
imply at least 25%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% reduction of the norm, but some opinion holds that
it
should mean at least 50%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% reduction.

Low calorie/low energy

A description which may be applied to foods which, when ready for
consumption, have an energy value no greater than 167 kJ (40 kcal) per
100 g (for the purposes of theUK Food Labelling Regulations 1984,
intense sweeteners and similar products are exempted from this limit).

Low in .....

Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified maximum or a legally-specified percentage reduction
compared with a product not making a 'low in' claim for the parameters
involved.

Manufacture

The complete cycle of production of a food product from the
acquisition of all materials, through all stages of subsequent
processing, packaging and storage, to the despatch of the finished
product.

Meat

'Meat' means the flesh, including fat and the skin, rind, gristle
and sinew in amounts naturally associated with the flesh, of any
animal or bird which is normally used for human consumption, but
including
only
those parts of the carcase listed in Part I of Schedule 2 of the UK
Meat
Products and Spreadable Fish Products Regulations 1984.
Note that from 1 January 2003 EU Member States will have to
give effect to a Directive amending Directive 2000/13/EC, limiting the
definition of "meat" to skeletal-attached muscle plus not more than
25%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% muscle-adhering fat and connective tissue (not more than 10%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% in
the case of birds and rabbits), requiring systematic indication of the
species from which the meat comes, and excluding "mechanically
separated meat" from the definition.

Natural

The extensive use of 'natural' in labelling and advertising
arises
from a public misconception, that 'natural' necessarily means 'safe',
healthy', 'nutritious' (in contrast to its perceived opposites,
'unnatural', 'unsafe', 'chemical', 'processed', etc). The consequent
marketing view that 'natural' should be used wherever possible to
reassure those fearing adverse effects of 'unnatural' foods, resulted
in
widespread indiscriminate use of 'natural' despite the efforts of food
scientists and technologists in industry and enforcement to restrict
its
use to justifiable cases. Although based on a misconception of the
significance of 'natural', if some consumers wish to select foods
which are 'natural', they are entitled to information that is
meaningful and not misleading.
In 1989 MAFF published FAC guidelines on the detailed conditions
and circumstances in which the use of 'natural' or similar terms) was
justified. In summary these were (a) to describe single foods of a
traditional nature to which nothing has been added and which have been
subjected only to such processing as to render them suitable for human
consumption.; (b) to describe food ingredients obtained from
recognised food sources, and which meet the criteria in (a); (c) to
describe flavouring substances (but see 'natural flavouring', below)
or
permitted
food additives obtained from recognised food sources by appropriate
physical processes or traditional food preparation processes. The
reference in (a) to 'a traditional nature' was intended to exclude
foods
such as mycoprotein which may be products of natural sources but were
not considered by FAC to accord with the public perception of
'natural'.
Compound food should not be described as 'natural' but could be
described as 'made from natural ingredients' if all of the ingredients
comply with (b) or (c). In the cases of foods not complying with the
above criteria, 'natural' or its derivatives should not be used in
brand
or fancy names or incorporated in meaningless copy. Phrases such as
'naturally good', naturally better', etc should be avoided.
At the time IFST urged that the abuse of the term was such that
these conditions should be embodied in legislation, but Ministers
decided otherwise. Nevertheless, although these conditions do not have
de jure force of law, enforcement authorities and courts can use them
as
yardsticks in assessing whether a particular usage is misleading; so
to that extent they have de facto legal force.
However, see also the FAC Review of the use of the terms Fresh,
Pure, Natural etc. in Food Labelling 2001, in connection with which
the UK Food Standards Agency has announced an intention to legislate
www.foodstandards.gov.uk/press_releases/uk_press/2001/pr010725.htm

Natural flavouring

The UK Flavourings in Food (Amendment) Regulations 1994 now
provides a legal definition to supersede that provided in relation to
flavourings in the FAC Guidelines on the use of the word 'natural'. It
provides that a 'natural' flavouring may be obtained from vegetable or
animal material by enzymatic or microbiological methods as well as
physical ones; and that if the name of the flavouring refers to its
vegetable or animal origin, it can only be designated 'natural' if it
is
derived wholly or mainly from the named vegetable or animal source.

Nature-Identical

a term applied to flavouring substances or mixtures thereof that
have been synthesised or isolated from aromatic raw materials but are
chemically identical with substances found in natural products used
for human consumption - in the US this is otherwise known as
"Artificial flavor".

New

Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction
with
'improved', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, ranging from
a
minor formulation or packaging change from a previously marketed
product,
through a product that is new to the manufacturer but very similar to
products already on the market, to a product that is really
innovative. How long can a product labelled 'New' continue to be so
labelled? There is no official answer, and it is extremely difficult
to give one. This is because a new product may be subjected to test
marketing in a particular part of the country, and then 'rolled out'
progressively until it reaches national distribution, perhaps taking
up to two years in doing so. A maximum of one year from national
distribution seems a reasonable limit.

Novel (food, process)

Food or food ingredients produced from raw material that has not
hitherto been used (or has been used only to a small extent) for human
consumption in the area of the world in question, or that is produced
by
a new or extensively modified process not previously used in the
production of food. A question open to debate is "At what point does a
novel food (e.g. mycoprotein), having come on the market and being
fairly widely consumed, cease to be a novel food?"

Any person or company contemplating marketing in the UK a novel
food or one containing a novel ingredient should make a prior
submission
to the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP).

Nutraceutical

See Functional food.

Organic

(See FAQ part 1, No. 20 for comparisons between organic and
other foods)
Organic food can be defined as "the product of a farming system
which avoids the use of man-made fertilisers, pesticides, growth
regulators and livestock feed additives. Instead the system relies on
crop rotation, animal and plant manures, some hand weeding and
biological pest control". This definition serves to distinguish the
use of the word 'organic' in this context from its more traditional
scientific meaning as a description of a carbon-containing molecule.
'Organic' is the description used only in English-speaking countries;
in other markets 'Bio' , 'Oko' or 'Eco' are appropriate. The Organic
Products Regulations 1992 as amended implement EU Council Regulation
EEC No 2091/91 (as amended in 1995) on organic production of
agricultural products and foodstuffs. The use of the word 'organic' is
restricted to agricultural crops and livestock and products made from
them, in compliance with the detailed provisions of Annexes I, II and
III of the Council Regulation.
Organic processed foods are labelled depending on the
proportion of organic ingredients present:

* Category 1: Product contains a minimum of 95%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% organic
ingredients by weight. Product can be labelled 'Organic'
eg Organic Cornflakes
* Category 2: Product contains 70 - 95%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% organic ingredients
by weight. Product can be labelled 'Made with Organic
Ingredients' eg Tomato Ketchup made with Organic Tomatoes.

Regulation 2092/91 as amended contains a list of the non-organic
ingredients which can be included in an otherwise organic food - for
example water, salt, permitted food additives, processing aids,
carrier solvents and flavourings. The Regulations also specifically
exclude the use of irradiated or genetically modified (GM) ingredients
in organic food.
Throughout the EU each member state has a national Control Body.
In the UK it is UKROFS, (The Register of Organic Food Standards) which
regulates the activities of six UK Certification Bodies, who are the
organisations charged with inspecting and regulating UK organic
producers and manufacturers. The largest Certification Body is the
Soil Association, which currently undertakes 80%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% of all certification
in the UK. The other UK Certification Bodies are Organic Farmers &
Growers, Scottish Organic Producers Association, Demeter, Organic Food
Federation (OFF) and Irish Organic Farmers & Growers Association.
Other prominent EU certification bodies include Ecocert (France),
Naturland (Germany) and Skal (Holland), whilst OCIA, OGBA, QAI and FVO
are the prominent certification bodies in the USA. The production of
organic food requires the same involvement of professional food
scientists and technologists and is subject to the same requirements
of good manufacturing practice and food safety as the rest of the food
industry, but is also subject to specific additional legal
requirements as to cultivation, composition and labelling.

Original

This adjective may be justified in respect of a well established
product, to distinguish it from subsequent variants marketed by the
manufacturer. Likewise it could be used in respect of a product which
was first in the marketplace to distinguish it from subsequent
'me-too' imitations.

Probiotic

This term, as a noun or adjective, has previously been used to
refer to 'microorganisms and substances which contribute to the
intestinal microbial balance'. However, the inclusion of 'substances'
created the paradox that antibiotics could be probiotics if they were
specific enough to destroy harmful bacteria thereby restoring the
intestinal microbial balance. Accordingly, it is now suggested that
'probiotic' should be taken to refer to 'a live microbial preparation,
either as a food or animal feed, which can benefit the host through
restoring its intestinal microbial balance'.

The microorganisms most commonly involved as probiotics are the
Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, Streptococci and some yeasts and moulds.
Probiotic preparations may have one or a mixture of organisms of
various
genera, species, sub-species or strains, and may take a variety of
physical forms.

There is conflicting evidence, and controversy, about the extent
to
which colon flora can be influenced by oral administration of the
various microorganisms involved, at the levels found in conventional
foods.

Processed

Having been subjected to treatment designed to change one or more
of the properties (physical, chemical, microbiological, sensory) of
food.

Processing aid

In the UK Food Labelling Regulations 1984, 'processing aids' are
not separately defined; but the definition of 'additive' 'includes
processing aids insofar as they added to, or used in or on, food'. It
follows that a processing aid is an additive which facilitates
processing without significantly influencing the character or
properties
of the finished product. Examples would be a tablet release agent used
to coat the inside of tablet moulds, or a spray used to allow bread to
be released from baking tins or trays. There are, however, anomalous
instances. For example, if an anti-caking agent is added to a powder
ingredient to facilitate its flow properties while being conveyed to a
mixer, where it is incorporated into a liquid product or a dough for
baking, the anti-caking agent is used solely as a processing aid, and
hence need not be declared. If however, that powder ingredient is
directly packed into containers for sale as such, or is incorporated
in a dry mix product, the anti-caking agent is not acting solely as a
processing aid and must be declared as an additive.

Pure

This word is used as a marketing term, and is usually applied to
a
single ingredient with no additions, e.g. pure vegetable oil, pure
orange juice, whether in the form of a single ingredients food or when
used as a major ingredient of a compound food.

Quality

When applied meaningfully to the character of a food, 'quality'
may
refer to (a) the degree or standard of excellence; or (b) the fitness
for purpose; or (c) the consistency of attainment of the specified
properties of the food. In the context of food control, it is meaning
(c) that applies.

The term is sometimes used in a meaningless marketing sense (e.g.
'X is a quality product').

Raw

In the earliest or primary state, after harvesting or slaughter,
not having been subjected to any treatment apart from cleaning, size
grading or size reduction, (e.g. diced raw vegetables, raw minced
beef).

Some ingredients termed 'raw materials' may actually be 'raw'.
Often, however, one manufacturer's starting materials are other
manufacturers' finished products; and a more accurate description
would be 'starting materials'.

Real

A marketing term, used normally to emphasise the presence of an
authentic ingredient in a product, as distinct from a substitute (e.g.
biscuits with a real chocolate coating).

See also Genuine.

Re-formed

'Re-formed' meat is an artefact having the appearance of a cut,
joint, slice or portion of meat, formed by combining pieces of meat
which have undergone processes generally including tumbling or
massaging
or specific alignment of fibres, with or without the addition of
finely comminuted meat and/or meat emulsion, and then forming in
moulds or
into
shapes. Codes of Practice exist for the labelling of cured meat
products
and quick frozen meat products respectively, made from re-formed
meats.

Reduced ...

Complying either with a declared or, where existing,
legally-specified percentage reduction compared with a product not
making a ""reduced" claim, for the parameter involved.

Restore

See Fortified (foods).

Rich in ...

See High in ...

Risk

The probability that a particular adverse consequence results
from a hazard within a stated time under stated conditions. "Risk
assessment" should take account of both the probability of occurrence
and its seriousness if it occurs. See Hazard and Risk Analysis.

Risk Analysis

This comprises risk assessment, risk management and risk
communication. Risk assessment requires expertise both in the
product or process in which the risk has been identified, and in
modern risk assessment techniques. While experts also have a
responsibility to contribute to risk management (i.e. the action to be
taken in relation to the assessed risk), it is not the province of
experts alone; in relation to a product or process within a food
operation, it is the responsibility of top management; in the wider
context of food legislation it is the responsibility of the
appropriate governmental authority after consultation. Consultation is
part of the process of risk communication, which should take place
both before and after risk management.

Selected

Primarily a marketing term, implying superior quality. It should
not be used unless it can be substantiated that the product quality
has been enhanced by an actual selection process.

Sensory

Relating to the use of the sense organs. (Note the distinction
from
'organoleptic' 'relating to an attribute of a product perceptible by
the
sense organs')..

BS 5098 (identical with ISO 5492: 1992) entitled 'Sensory
Analysis
Vocabulary' provides an extensive and authoritative set of definitions
of terms relating to sensory analysis.

Snack

A small quantity of food, eaten informally between, or in place
of,
main meals.

Snackfood (Snack food)

A convenient food item specifically manufactured for use as a
snack.

Spoilage

Any perceivable change undergone by a food, through any cause,
that
renders it unwholesome or unacceptable for use. Spoilage is usually
the result of enzyme or microbial action resulting, for example, in
lipolytic rancidity, putrefaction, fermentation, or mould growth; but
food can also spoil by other means, for example overlong storage,
non-enzymic browning, or exposure to air or light. In practice the
term is most frequently applied to categorising such deteriorative
changes (other than food infection or intoxication) when caused by
microorganisms.

Steak

'Steak' has, in the past, been taken to mean a cut or thick slice
from the beef animal. However, a judgement in the Court of Appeal in
1986 allowed a re-formed product to be called 'Chicken Breast Steaks
Flaked and Formed Chicken in a Crispy Crumb' on the grounds that the
description of the product, as a whole, was clear, accurate and not
misleading. This judgement, therefore, means that 'steak' can be used,
provided that it is properly qualified, as a generic term, probably in
relation to any animal, bird or fish normally used for human
consumption,
and whether or not the meat has been re-formed.

Traditional

One way of defining 'traditional' in relation to foods and food
processes is to say it is the opposite of 'new' or 'modern' (cf. the
FAC's use of 'traditional' with the intention to exclude novel foods,
see 'natural', above). It can also be applied to a particular
characteristic of a food; for example 'traditional flavour', 'made in
the traditional way'. This leaves unresolved, however, the question
"at what point does yesterday's 'new' or 'modern' become today's
'traditional'?". One suspects that for each generation, 'traditional'
means anything up to and including the foods and methods of one's
early youth! For some, 'traditional' appears to mean rule-of-thumb
craft-based
rather than based on science/technology.

Unadulterated

A food material containing no additions or contaminants foreign
to
the normal product which otherwise would debase it or confer or
disguise
inferior quality.

Wholefood

Any food which contains all its naturally occurring components,
(e.g. pulses, raw vegetables) and without the addition of other
substances. A wholefood can be a mixture of wholefoods.

Wholesomeness

'Wholesomeness' is a convenient single term which embodies a
large
number of aspects and attributes of a food. In summary, a wholesome
food
is one that satisfactorily meets the expectations of the segment of
consumers at which it is aimed; and that has been made, stored and
handled in compliance with any relevant legislative standards and with
all of the principles of good manufacturing practice.

Full consideration of these characteristics is given in IFST
Professional Conduct Guideline 'Wholesomeness of Food'. This relates
to a clause in the Code of Professional Conduct, requiring each member
"to take legitimate steps through proper channels to ensure (or assist
in ensuring) the wholesomeness of any food with which he or she is
concerned".

MARKETING TERMS

When used in the labelling, advertising or description of a food,
the main (and sometimes total) role of the terms listed under this
heading is to promote the sale of the product rather than provide
necessary information to the purchaser. Terms often falling into this
category include 'health food', 'designer food', 'functional food',
'improved', 'natural', 'new', 'pure', 'quality', 'selected',
'traditional'.

Food scientists and technologists who are in a position to advise
on product labelling, advertising or promotional material should do
their best to ensure that such terms are not used in ways that could
mislead (see IFST Professional Guideline No 6 'Scientific Issues and
Food Promotion').

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]]> Tue, 23 Jan 2007 21:26:38 PST http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/sci_bio_food_science_additions_and_changes_to_faq_and_46218244t.html http://www.nnseek.com/e/sci.bio.food-science/sci_bio_food_science_additions_and_changes_to_faq_and_46218244t.html
Posting-Frequency: biweekly
Last-modified: 2006/06/12

RECENT CHANGES (12 June 2006):

This is another minor fix. A couple of URLs have changed at the request of
the respective web site maintainers or the institutions they represent.

Part 1/3: FAQ - SCI.BIO.FOOD.SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions (1 of 3)

Some URL changes:
UNITED KINGDOM
University of Huddersfield: http://www.hud.ac.uk/sas/nuthealth

THE NETHERLANDS
Wageningen University: http://www.food-info.net/wageningen.htm
__

That's it for the changes! Now on to New User Information. No need to read
the rest of this "NEWS" section unless you're new to the group.
__

INFORMATION FOR NEW USERS
__

NOTES ON 'NETTIQUETTE:

Please read also FAQ 1/3, Part I: GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR POSTING IN
SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE

There has been a slow but sure trend in recent years for some
posters to get emotional or to bait emotional debates with their
postings. This is never a good thing, since discussions most commonly
deteriorate into name-calling and so on. Others wonder why their
posts hardly get any responses from this group. All this is discussed
here.

Emotional debates are common in any topic for which adherents hold
passionate, but opposing, beliefs. One of life's many paradoxes holds
that if you shout, you will not be heard. Keep your conversations
polite and cordial. The basis of politeness means that you must
realise that this is a text medium, and people cannot see your body
language to find out what you intend with these words, and as a
result most people tend to assume the worst. You have to be extra
careful in how you word things with others.

However, there are many other reasons your postings do not get
desirable responses. First of all, realise that this is a food
science newsgroup, and that most of the posters tend to tow the
party line of science. If you find this hard to take, there are
many other newsgroups that you might find more friendly. In FAQ
1/3, for example, the newsgroup has many explicitly-stated goals,
along with a newsgroup charter. These were agreed to and voted on
over 10 years ago. Charters and statements of goals are a fact of
life of all newsgroups under the sci.* hierarchy, and other
hierarchies as well.

While we welcome posts from anybody and everybody, you must ensure
that your postings are on-topic. Some newsgroups dealing with other
aspects of foods which we don't deal with:

sci.med.nutrition rec.food.preserving rec.food.cooking
rec.food.recipes alt.food.wine alt.food.fat-free
rec.food-veg rec.food.veg.cooking alt.support.diet
alt.food.vegan alt.food.vegan.science
alt.animals.ethics.vegetarian alt.sport.weightlifting.vegetarian
alt.support.diet.* (there are several newsgroups in this hierarchy)

If you wonder why your posting garners few or no responses, it
could be due to several reasons, including: 1) Nobody understood your
post; 2) your post was not on-topic for the newsgroup, 3) your post
showed an obvious intent at baiting an argument, and people properly
ignored it, or 4) your post perhaps gave nothing for others to
respond to.
__

This FAQ has been accepted to the *.answers newsgroups, and can be found
in both sci.answers and news.answers.

DOWNLOADING This FAQ: This is not an exhaustive list. Pick a
site nearest you. All paths end in "sci/food-science-faq/"
except for Gopher sites, which use menus, and FSP sites, which have
protocols that I am unfamiliar with. FSP stands for "File Service
Protocol". There are several other sites not mentioned here. To get
the very latest list, look under:

<http://tinyurl.com/7f3v7>

They include Gopher sites, FTP sites, FSP sites, and web sites in
Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia.
This list is intended only as a representative sample.

From Canada:

This is the only Canadian FAQ repository, located in the
maritime province of New Brunswick.
From Germany:
via FSP from: ftp.Germany.EU.net, port 2001
<ftp://ftp.Germany.EU.net:80/pub/newsarchive/news.answers/>
This FTP site uses compression. You must download a GZIP
decompression package to see the text, which should be
available at this site.
From Hong Kong:
<ftp://ftp.hk.super.net/mirror/faqs/>
One of many Asian sites.
From Mexico and Central America:
<ftp://ftp.mty.itesm.mx/pub/mirrors/usenet/news.answers/>
This FTP site uses compression. You must download an
UNCOMPRESS package to see the text, which should be
available at this site.
From South Africa:
<ftp://ftp.is.co.za/usenet/news.answers/>
From the United Kingdom:
<ftp://src.doc.ic.ac.uk/usenet/news-faqs/news.answers/>
via FSP from: src.doc.ic.ac.uk, port 21
From the United States:
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-group/news.answers/>
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-group/alt.answers/>
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-hierarchy/news/answers/>
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-hierarchy/alt/answers/>
rtfm.mit.edu is the central repository for most of the
official FAQs that appear on the Usenet. In fact, this is the
place where you are *guaranteed* the most up-to-date FAQ, since
they have to do the auto-posting.
<ftp://ftp.mirrors.aol.com/pub/rtfm/usenet/news-answers/>

From the Web:
Old postings to sbfs can be found at http://dejanews.com, using
"sci.bio.food-science" as a search string.

Other WWW Pages: Check out a site nearest you:

Germany: <http://www.Germany.EU.net:80/>
This actually leads to a search engine where the FAQ must be
downloaded via FTP as above. The files are compressed with GZIP.

The UK: <http://src.doc.ic.ac.uk/usenet/news-faqs/news.answers/>
This is a "bare text" web page. In other words, there are no
live web links. It is a plain text FAQ.


<http://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/sci.bio.food-science.html>
This is the other British Homepage worth mentioning, which
will hopefully be updated soon. All links mentioned in this FAQ
are live, and is a good starting point in surfing to various
food science web sites. See "SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE ON THE
WORLD-WIDE WEB" below:

The USA: <http://www.smartpages.com/faqs/>
__

A SHORT NOTE ON FTP RETRIEVAL OF THIS FAQ (for Windows users with
SLIP/PPP):

If you find your web browser too slow on your system, a better way to FTP
is by use of freeware like WS-FTP. It can be downloaded via anonymous FTP
from <ftp://129.29.64.246/pub/msdos>. WS-FTP is free for private,
household use. A fee is required for commercial use. You may find the
transfer on WS-FTP is much faster, and that it uses far less memory. Also,
WS-FTP allows you to maintain a menu of your favourite FTP sites. This is
not intended to be an endorsement of WS-FTP, and others are available. __

SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE FAQ ON THE WORLD-WIDE WEB:

Our FAQ has been converted to HTML for users of the World-Wide Web. It may
be found at two locations:

<http://tinyurl.com/d6